The Difference Between Homology and Homoplasy

Two common terms used in the science of evolution are  homology and homoplasy. While these terms sound similar (and indeed have a shared linguistic element), they are quite different in their scientific meanings. Both terms refer to sets of biological characteristics that are shared by two or more species (hence the prefix homo), but one term indicates that the shared characteristic came from a common ancestor species, while the other term refers to a shared characteristic that evolved independently in each species.   Homology Defined The term homology refers to biological structures or characteristics that are similar or the same. These characteristics are found  on two or more different species when those characteristics can be traced to a common ancestor. An example of homology is seen in the forelimbs of frogs, birds, rabbits, and lizards. Although these limbs have a different appearance in each species, they all share the same set of bones. This same arrangement of bones has been identified in fossils of a very old extinct species,  Eusthenopteron, which was inherited by frogs, birds, rabbits, and lizards.   Homoplasy Defined Homoplasy, on the other hand, describes a biological structure or characteristic that two or more different species have in common that was not inherited from a common ancestor. A homoplasy evolves independently, usually due to natural selection in similar environments or filling the same type of niche as the other species which also have that trait. A common example often cited is the eye, which developed independently in many different species.   Divergent and Convergent Evolution Homology is a product of divergent evolution. This means that a single ancestor species split, or diverges, into  two or more species at some time in its history. This occurs due to some type of natural selection or environmental isolation that separates the new species from the ancestor. The divergent species now begin to evolve  separately, but they still retain some of the characteristics of the common ancestor. These shared ancestral characteristics are known as homologies. Homoplasy, on the other hand, is due to  convergent evolution. Here, different species develop, rather than inherit, similar traits. This may happen because the species are living in similar environments, filling similar niches, or through the process of natural selection. One example of convergent natural selection is when a species evolves to mimic the appearance of another, such as when a non-poisonous species develop similar markings to a highly venomous species. Such mimicry offers a distinct advantage by deterring potential predators. The similar markings shared by the scarlet kingsnake (a harmless species) and the deadly coral snake is an example of convergent evolution.   Homology Versus Homoplasy Homology and homoplasy are often difficult to identify, since both may be present in the same physical characteristic. The wing of birds and bats is an example where both homology and homoplasy are present. The bones within the wings are homologous structures that are inherited from a common ancestor. All wings include a type of breastbone, a large upper arm bone, two forearm bones, and what would be hand bones. This basic bone structure is found in many species, including humans, leading to the correct conclusion that birds, bats, humans, and many other species share a common ancestor.   But the wings themselves are homoplasies, since many of the species with this shared bone structure, including humans, do not have wings. From the shared ancestor with a certain bone structure, natural selection eventually led to the development of birds and bats with wings that allowed them to fill a niche and survive in a particular  environment. Meanwhile, other divergent species eventually  developed the fingers and thumbs necessary to occupy a different niche.

The Power of the Printed Word - 697 Words

The Power of the Printed Word 1) Uncle Toms Cabin was a highly influential book on Englands view of American slavery in the Deep South. This novel promoted abolition and intensified sectional conflict between the north and south. 2) The Declaration of Independence formalized the colonies separation from Britain and laid out the Enlightenment values (best expressed by John Locke) of natural rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness upon which the American Revolution was based. 3) The Influence of Sea Power Upon History describes countries with sea power were the great nations in history. Mahan believed in order for the U.S. needed to have a powerful defense, it was essential to establish power in the Caribbean and the Pacific. 4) Common Sense argued that nowhere in the universe was there a larger body ruled by a smaller body, and this same rule should apply to America and Britain. 5) The Jungle described the unsanitary and poor conditions of factories. This book inspired pro-consumer federal laws to be passed in order to regulate meat, food, and drugs. 6) Report on Manufactures was a proposal promoting protectionism in trade by adding tariffs to imported goods in order to protect American industry. 7) The Significance of the American Frontier was a lecture arguing that the western frontier had forged the distinctive qualities of American culture: individual freedom, political democracy, and economic mobility. 8) The Feminine Mystique portrayed theShow MoreRelatedPrinting Press Middle Ages621 Words   |  3 Pagesby 1480 110 towns had printing presses accounting for 10 million books by 1500 (University of Wisconsin, Pa. 9). The Middle Ages was a huge time of religious matters. Shorts book and texts were often printed to educate people of power. 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Should Students Be Eligible Receive A Subsidized Or...

For students who are struggling with the idea of the succeeding step in their life, college, there are plenty of possibilities. The question is which option suits you best, community or university? This subject matter is occurring all over the country. It’s vital to know all the facts before making a choice since this is your path for the next few years or more of your life. Students want to consider the expenses of the school, acceptance/academics and the overall college experience for each schooling option. It can be very stressful for someone to figure out how they will pay for school. It is a given that college in general is expensive and in a way luxurious. Around two-thirds of students pay for college with the tool of financial aid. Most of that money is grants, which students do not have to pay back. Technically it is free money to put towards school. There are also various other routes like loans. Students may be eligible to receive a subsidized or unsubsidized loan. 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When America entered into World War II, several major...

When America entered into World War II, several major league baseball executives started a new professional league with women players. They created a new league in order to maintain baseball in the public eye while the majority of men were away. The All-American Girls Professional Baseball League was founded by Philip K. Wrigley which existed from 1943 to 1954. During the leagues history, over 600 women played ball. AAGPBL players were recruited from all over the country and Canada through the Cubs’ scouting network (Fidler, 2006). Players’ hitting, catching, fielding, throwing, and running skills were thoroughly evaluated before players were invited to regional tryouts or to sign a contract. Forty-four percent of the players were†¦show more content†¦The female apologetic suggests that female athletic involvement is tolerable as long as traditional notions of femininity are present (Pierman, 2005; Roth Basow,2004). The AAGPBL had to present femininity to th e public by wearing feminine uniforms, having charm, and code of conduct. The overall look of the uniform was intended to remind fans that they were not only watching real baseball, but real girls (Draeger, 1997). Players were issued an 11-page â€Å"Guide for All-American Girls: How to Look Better, Feel Better, Be More Popular† along with a beauty kit (Charm School). They were given instructions in putting on makeup, how to get in and out of a car gracefully, how to speak correctly, and how to make proper conversations in social settings (Fincher, 1989). Clothing guidelines were issued, as well as a 10-step suggested beauty routine for after the games. Many females were denied from being able to join the AAGPBL if they looked masculine. Back then, being labeled masculine as a female meant they did not meet the expectations of beauty. This raised the question of, whether or not the exclusion of the masculine looking athletes compromised the power statistics of the league. The answer to this question still remains unknown because it is controversial. Joining the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League brought a new opportunity for females. 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Information System Audit in Indian Banks Free Essays

Information itself is an important asset in today’s business. If information is lost, modified, misused huge loss can occur to business. Hence information security becomes important for any business. We will write a custom essay sample on Information System Audit in Indian Banks or any similar topic only for you Order Now Information system in business including that of banking is becoming technology oriented. Computers are being used in all the areas of business including that of financial accounting. Internal controls used in a Computerized Information System (CIS) environment should aim at information security also. This aspect of internal control is mostly overlooked in a Financial Audit where evidence collection and evaluation is more important. Audit provides the assurance to stakeholders of business. Assurance provided by a financial audit is about financial statements, which are relied upon and based on which decisions are taken by many stakeholders. However there are risks associated in any business, which is not highlighted in a financial audit. Operational Risk and Audit For example Basel II Accord mentions of ‘operational risks’ that are due to failure of system, process, procedure and human action/inaction (fraud) and legal restrictions, etc. in the operation of banks, some of which are not dealt in financial audit. The Basle committee has identified people, processes, systems and external events, as potential hazards for operations. Inadequacy and failure of any of them can result into events, which cause losses. Every business has to identify events of their relevance. The events may be similar in the same industry, but vary from an organization to organization. The whole exercise of the operational risk management is to identify potential events, which are likely to cause losses. Here is a list of some of the events, which could lead to operational risk (non exhaustive): Technology error Fraud and theft  Legal, Regulatory non compliance, Transaction risk Processes, people and systems are closely linked with information systems. Even measurement and recognition of external events need information systems. Therefore, under the new Accord, the job of an audit and control practitioner shall become more onerous and challenging. Therefore a financial audit cannot assure that the information system is foolproof as financial auditor is not expert in information technology. Hence an expert should provide an opinion that information system is risk-free. This is where Information System Audit (IS Audit) comes into picture. Meaning of IS audit Information systems audit is a part of the overall audit process, which is one of the facilitators for good corporate governance. While there is no single universal definition of IS audit, Ron Weber has defined it as â€Å"the process of collecting and evaluating evidence to determine whether a computer system (information system) Safeguards assets Maintains data integrity Achieves organizational goals effectively and Consumes resources efficiently. † Key Challenge in IS Audit IS audit often involves finding and recording observations that are highly technical. Such technical depth is required to perform effective IS audits. At the same time it is necessary to translate audit findings into vulnerabilities and businesses impacts to which operating managers and senior management can relate. Therein lies a main challenge of IS audit. Scope of IS Audit IS auditing is an integral part of the audit function because it â€Å"supports the auditor’s judgment on the quality of the information processed by computer systems. † Initially, auditors with IS audit skills are viewed as the technological resource for the audit staff. The audit staff often looks o them for technical assistance. Within IS auditing there are many types of audit needs, such as Organizational IS audits (management control over information technology), Technical IS audits (infrastructure, data centers, data communication), Application IS audit (business/financial/operational), Development/implementation IS audits (specification/ requirements, design, development and post-implementation phases) Compliance IS audits involving national or international standards. The IS auditor’s role has evolved to provide assurance that adequate and appropriate controls are place. Of course, the responsibility for ensuring that adequate internal controls are in place rests with management. Audit’s primary role, except in areas of management advisory services, is to provide a statement of assurance as to whether adequate and reliable internal controls are in place and are operating in an efficient and effective manner. So, whereas management is to ensure, auditors are to assure. The breadth and depth of knowledge required to audit information technology and systems is extensive. For example, IS auditing involves the: pplication of risk-oriented audit approaches use of computer assisted audit tools and techniques(CAATs) application of standards (national or international) such as ISO-9000/3 to improve and implement quality systems in software development understanding of business roles and expectations in the auditing of systems under development as well as the purchase of software packaging and project management Evaluation of complex Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) or new development techniques (e. g. , prototyping, end-user computing, rapid systems or application development). Evaluation of complex technologies and communications protocols involves electronic data interchange, client servers, local and wide area networks, data communications, telecommunications and integrated voice/data/video systems. Elements/components of IS Audit An information system is not just a computer. Today’s information systems are complex and have many components that piece together to make a business solution. Assurances about an information system can be obtained only if all the components are evaluated and secured. The proverbial weakest link is the total strength of the chain. The major elements of IS audit can be broadly classified: Physical and environmental review–This includes physical security, power supply, air conditioning, humidity control and other environmental factors. System administration review–This includes security review of the operating systems, database management systems, all system administration procedures and compliance. Application software review–The business application could be payroll, invoicing, a web-based customer order processing system or an enterprise resource planning system that actually runs the business. Review of such application software includes access control and authorizations, validations, error and exception handling, business process flows within the application software and complementary manual controls and procedures. Additionally, a review of the system development lifecycle should be completed. Network security review–Review of internal and external connections to the system, perimeter security, firewall review, router access control lists, port scanning and intrusion detection are some typical areas of coverage. Business continuity review–This includes existence and maintenance of fault tolerant and redundant hardware, backup procedures and storage, and documented and tested disaster recovery/business continuity plan. Data integrity review–The purpose of this is scrutiny of live data to verify adequacy of controls and impact of weaknesses, as noticed from any of the above reviews. Such substantive testing can be done using generalized audit software (e. g. , computer assisted audit techniques). It is important to understand that each audit may consist of these elements in varying measures; some audits may scrutinize only one of these elements or drop some of these elements. While the fact remains that it is necessary to do all of them, it is not mandatory to do all of them in one assignment. The skill sets required for each of these are different. The results of each audit need to be seen in relation to the other. This will enable the auditor and management to get the total view of the issues and problems. This overview is critical. How to cite Information System Audit in Indian Banks, Essay examples

Colonial Unity free essay sample

Colonial unity in the Americas were really weak. Each colony was like a separate nation, with no central government but the parliament leading them. The colonial political unity in America has grown from the French and Indian War to the Second Continental Congress. They have struggled to keep unity between the colonies during these times. Between the end of the French and Indian War and the Second Continental Congress, colonial political unity has changed and grown. Near the end of the French and Indian war, colonial political unity was weak. It was so weak the Indians near the border laughed at their ability to pull gather in unity. In 1754, the British Government call for a inter-colonial congress in Albany, New York. The immediate purpose was to keep peace with the Iroquois Tribes. The real reason for the congress was to achieve a greater unity within the colonies and Set up a defense against France. We will write a custom essay sample on Colonial Unity or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The congress called for delegates from all colonies, but only seven of the thirteen colonies chose to attend. Even before the continental congress, Benjamin Franklin realized the disunity between the colonies.He published the most famous cartoon in the colonial area. It showed the separate colonies as parts f a disjointed snake, and had a slogan that said Join, Or DE Nearing the end of the war, colonists did not support the French and Indian War. The colonies did not provide money or troops for the conflict. Only when William Pit offered money, the colonies decided to join. If they were to be bribed to defend themselves, how could they unite to defend themselves in the future? At the end of the war, many disunity feeling began to melt.Only because those who fought side by side each other from different colonies, discovered that they all were fellow Americans, who all spoke the same language and ideals. After the French and Indian war, England imposed taxes to help pay the cost of the war. They passed the Stamp Act, which required stamps on commercial and legal documents. The Stamp Act Congress of 1765 brought several delegates from nine colonies. The congress made little impact in England, but it brought leaders from rival colonies together.This was one more significant step toward colonial unity. As the revolution continued in America, the colonies were once again growing in colonial unity. England has imposed the Townsend Acts onto the colonist and began enforcing the Navigation Laws. As a result, Samuel Adams organized the Committees of Correspondence. Soon after, the colonies began to set up similar organizations like it. This allowed the colonies to exchange ideas and gather information from other colonies.These inter-colonial groups were very important in encouraging and distributing feelings in favor Of colonial unity. This united action, eventually evolved into the first American congresses. Following the Boston Tea Party, England responded by passing the Boston Port Act, or what the Americans called the Intolerable Acts. In response to the Intolerable Acts, the Continental Congress of 1 774 was summoned. Delegates from twelve of the thirteen colonies, which excluded Georgia, attended the Continental Congress.They were to meet in Philadelphia to think of ways to readdress colonial grievances. Inter-colonial tensions melted away by social activities after working hours. They proposed a complete Boycott of English goods, called the Association. This was the closest thing to a written constitution that the colonies written as a united nation. At the Second Continental congress, delegates from all colonies attended. Richard Henry Lee proposed to break free from Britain. He stated that These United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states.. . This ultimately resulted into the Declaration Of Independence. This motion showed that the colonies were politically united enough to break free from England and become a united nation. The growth of colonial unity started from being separate colonies to being a united nation. Political and colonial unity grew with the help of England and American leaders. The colonies unity grew between the French and Indian War and the Second Continental Congress to such an extent that they became a independent nation.